Seven Tips for Greywater Use

At its simplest, a greywater system takes water that has been used in household cleaning tasks and diverts it for use on the permaculture garden. When the toilet is flushed, the bath emptied or the washing machine used, a greywater system prevents the wastewater from simply going down the drain and into the sewer system; instead pipes take it out to the garden where it is used for irrigation. Particularly if it is utilized in combination with a rainwater harvesting method, a greywater system could go a long way to providing all the irrigation needs a permaculture garden has. It has the additional benefits of limiting wastewater (and so lightening the load on the municipal system of pipes and treatment plants) and of reducing your water bills.

However, harvesting and using greywater is not quite as simple as just piping the water from the bathroom and laundry out onto the garden; there are several variables to consider before installing a greywater system.

Regulations
Different states in countries like the U.S. and Australia may have different zoning laws and regulations related to greywater systems, as may local authorities These could be related to the relative proximity of public bodies of water, the degree to which locations are prone to flooding, areas of environmental protection, and other local considerations. In reality, instituting a greywater system on your property is unlikely to cause the authorities to investigate you. If you ensure that your greywater is adequately stored and judiciously used, you should be fine to make use of it, but it is certainly worth checking local regulation. Even if you are prohibited from diverting bathroom and laundry water onto your plot, you can still use other forms of greywater, such as utilizing bath water and water used in the sink to clean vegetables to irrigate your garden, as opposed to letting the liquid drain away. Indeed, as long as precautions are taken about the chemical load in products used in such water, these methods of saving water should be a regular part of your permaculture practice.

Application
It is not advisable to apply greywater to edible plants if the liquid has not been filtered. The potential for human waste, such as fecal matter and skin particles, to contaminate the food should not be risked. If you want to use the greywater on edible plants, you need to divert it through a natural filter, such as a wetland. This will take out all the waste matter, and it can safely be used on all types of plant, including those producing food crops.

Chemical
What you put in to a greywater system will invariably, to some extent, come out. So you need to be aware of what is in the products that go into the washing machine, toilet and shower. Some chemicals that are commonly found in detergents can damage your plants. Boron, for instance, may be an essential element for plants, but on in very small amounts. An excess of the chemical (more that that which is naturally provided in a well-composted soil) can damage plants. Chlorine is another chemical often used in household cleaning products. If it gets into the soil in large concentrations, chlorine can inhibit plants’ ability to take up nutrients, and limit the activity of microorganisms in the soil.

Alkaline
Even detergents that do not contain these harmful chemicals can still be detrimental to plants, because they tend to make the water more alkaline. Most plants prefer a soil that is slightly acidic, so may not thrive if the greywater cause the pH level of the soil to increase. You could divert the greywater to an area planted with some of the species that are tolerant of alkaline conditions – such as chickweed, goosefoot and chicory – or you could combat the alkalinity of the greywater by adding material that ups the acidity; animal manure and compost that includes coffee grounds are good options.

Use
Greywater should be used on the garden within two days of leaving the house, and ideally within 24 hours. This is to prevent potentially harmful bacteria (pathogens), such as those found in fecal matter, from multiplying, which is more likely to occur if the water is left to sit. These bacteria are the same reason why permaculturists do not use human waste as compost on edible crops. If you are routing your greywater through a wetland for filtration purposes, this will help eliminate any bacteria that may be present.

Temperature
If you are in a location that experiences cold winters, with the ground frozen to a depth of several inches, it can be impractical to use a greywater system. The frozen ground would mean that the water is not able to percolate into the soil, and if applied to the garden could runoff and pollute local water bodies. And as noted above, you should not collect the greywater over the winter for use in the spring, as this can lead to high levels of harmful bacteria. For permaculture gardeners using greywater systems in areas with such climatic conditions, it may be best to divert the greywater into the municipal drainage system or a septic tank during the winter.

Drip Irrigation
If you want to use greywater in a drip irrigation system, you will need to ensure that it is filtered well before entering the pipes. You will need to install a very fine mesh filter on the pipe connecting your greywater system to the drip irrigation mechanism. This filtration is necessary to prevent material that could clog up the tiny holes in the drip system from getting in. Lint from clothes, hair from the shower or from the laundry, even things like paper that may have been inadvertently left in the pocket of clothes going through the machine can block up the irrigation system, preventing correct water flow and depriving plants of moisture. And given that many drip irrigation systems are installed below ground, it can be difficult to tell when or where a nozzle gets blocked until a plant begins to show signs of water deficiency.

Nine Ways to Save Water in the Garden

Water is one of the most precious resources we have. Literally the source of life, if nourishes us, the planet and all of nature, including the food we eat. It is, as such, a necessary part of permaculture gardening. We need to provide the plants we grow with sufficient water to survive, grow strong and develop healthy crops. However, to preserve as much water as we can, permaculture design should always seeks ways to minimize water use where possible and, above all, to avoid water wastage. Below are some techniques permaculture gardeners can employ to save water on their site.

Soil
Good water use in the permaculture garden starts with the quality of your oil. Get a healthy soil that is rich in organic matter, and your have the basis for a very water-efficient plot. Organic matter, typically added in the form of compost, helps keep the soil balanced in terms of texture – meaning its not too sandy, which allows water to leach through quickly, or have too much clay which holds onto water and keeps it from the plant roots – and structure, giving plants room to branch out roots and access moisture.

Mulch
Mulching your garden has many benefits, such as allowing the slow-release of nutrients into the soil, and inhibiting soil erosion by the wind. Another positive effect is that mulch helps prevent excessive evaporation of water from the soil, as well as limiting surface runoff, meaning more stays within and can be used by plants. A coarse mulch will allow rainwater to percolate through and penetrate the soil, although when laying mulch, ensure that the layers get a good soaking as you go for maximum effectiveness.

Natives
Choosing native plants means planting species that are most suited to the climatic conditions of your location. They will be adapted to conserve water during dry periods and maximize moisture uptake when it’s wet. Native plants are also likely to be complimentary to one another, having existed in the same locations together, so using natives in guilds where plants have beneficial functions for one another – where one species, for instance, might provide a deep rooting system to allow another to access water, and which provides shade to the first plant in return – is even more effective at saving water.

Design
When you design your permaculture plot, you can utilize design and planting techniques to enhance water use efficiency. For instance, planting cover crops and low-lying species to avoid bare soil minimizes moisture evaporation, while planting tall species besides smaller ones offers shade and so limits excessive transpiration. Planting species that require a lot of water in low-lying areas where water gathers, and less water-hungry varieties at the top of slopes from where water drains more quickly, means you are designing with their natural needs in mind. You can also create swales to hold water on the land and allow it to percolate into the soil, and contour land to divert runoff to areas where it is needed.

Catch Rainwater
Rain is nature’s way of watering your garden, but not all rain falls where it can be most useful. Catching rainwater that falls in areas where doesn’t benefit plants, and then using it to irrigate your plot, avoids this waste. Doing so can be as simple as installing a rainwater barrel into which you divert the runoff from the roof of your house, rather than allowing the guttering to take it down the drain.

Reuse Household Water
One of the principles of permaculture design is that one thing can serve multiple functions, and that reusing and recycling material and resources should be pursued wherever possible to limit waste. This can be applied to water use as well. Some permaculturists may consider installing a greywater system to reuse bathroom water in the garden, but even on a smaller scale, water can be saved. For instance, when you steam or boil vegetables, save the water, allow it to cool then use on your garden.

Timing
It can be easy to get into a routine when irrigating your plot, but always water to suit the weather conditions of the day. For instance, watering when it’s raining obviously seems inefficient (let nature do the job) but also when winds are strong, as this can evaporate the moisture before it has a chance to percolate into the soil.

On warm days, water early in the morning to allow maximum absorption by the plants before the sunshine starts to evaporate the moisture. Avoid watering too late in the evening, as plant foliage needs time to dry out before nightfall to minimize the risk of fungal diseases.

Avoid Overwatering
It can be easy to overwater your permaculture plot. If you see the surface of the soil looking dry, it can be tempting to irrigate immediately. However, it is always a good idea to check beyond the surface to see if watering is really necessary. As a general rule, the first couple of inches of the soil should be dry, and then below that the soil should be moist. This helps to encourage plant roots to grow deeply into the soil, making them more efficient at sourcing water and more strongly rooted in the ground. Soils that are waterlogged leave no room for other essential elements to plant health, such as oxygen.

Install Drip Irrigation
One of the most efficient ways to water your plants is to install drip irrigation. Rather than using a hose or a watering can, which can easily lead both to overwatering and to watering areas where plants may not be able to access the moisture, drip irrigation delivers the water directly to plants in a slow, sustained manner, saving water and making sure all of the moisture is available to the plants. Drop irrigation uses pipes or tubing with nozzles adjacent to each plant that allow water to trickle on to the plants. Such systems can be installed either above ground, with the nozzles by the base of the plant, or below the soil, delivering water to the roots. And you could combine a drip irrigation system with a rainwater catchment barrel for more water efficiency.

15 Things to Observe Before Starting your Permaculture Design

When you first start considering turning a site into a permaculture garden, you need to do a thorough analysis of the plot. You need to get to know the land, the organisms that live on it and the influences that act upon it. By understanding the land, you can work with it to make the changes a permaculture garden will need to thrive. One of the primary means of analyzing a plot is observation. Looking at the land, watching how it changes with the season, and how it reacts to events, will be a great bedrock of knowledge on which to base your subsequent permaculture garden design. The longer the period you can simply observe the land before altering it, the better, as you will see how it changes over the seasons. Here are some of the primary things that you should observe when analyzing your site.

Shade
Different species of plant require different amounts of shade and direct sunlight. Observing how the sun falls on your plot will help you decide which plants to site in which locations. It could also help you orientate your garden beds to allow for the maximum amount of sunshine to hit them, and also demonstrate where shade might provide relief for livestock.

Wind
The wind is a significant factor in the growing potential of a plot. It can affect the evaporation of moisture from the soil and from plants, can impact upon soil erosion and even damage or destroy plants. By observing how the wind acts upon a site you can design windbreaks to protect your plants and animals from the negative effects of the wind.

Temperature
Temperature affects everything from plant growth and soil moisture to evaporation from water bodies and the comfort of animals. Record temperature high and lows across the seasons, remembering that temperatures won’t be uniform across the whole site – different conditions will create niches and microclimates within the site. Noting the first and last frost of the season is also a good idea.

Sun
Observe when the sun rises and when the sun sets across your land. While these times are fairly predictable in geographic locations (they are published by government agencies, for example) the specifics of your site may mean that the times vary. For instance, if a neighboring property has a border of tall trees, the sun may tot ‘rise’ to hit your plot until later in the morning.

Microclimates
Microclimates are locations within the garden where features of the land, such as topography, materials and water bodies create variations in temperature. These microclimates can provide niches in which to cultivate certain species of plant that thrive in specific conditions. You can also plan in your design to modify microclimates where doing so may be beneficial, such as placing rocks to store and diffuse heat, or planting tall species to provide extra shade to ground cover crops.

Moisture
Moisture is key to plant growth, and the more you can harvest from the weather, and reduce your reliance on water supply systems, the better. Observe rainfall patterns across seasons (you can also access official figures of annual rainfall expectations across your region). Analyze where snow and hail settle and where it melts most quickly. Try to discern the reasons for this.

Soil
Look at the soil. This is the foundation of your permaculture garden, so you want to understand it as best you can. Look at how loose or tight the soil particles are. This will help determine if you have a clay or sandy soil, which in turn will affect how well it retains moisture.

Flow
How does water that falls on the land move across it? Are there gullies and creeks that direct the flow? Are there areas of the site that are prone to flooding after heavy rainfall? Observing how water flows across the land will, enable you to design features that make use of this flow – by diverting it to other, drier areas of the site – or slow it down so it can seep into the soil, by building swales, for example.

Views
A permaculture garden is designed to work in harmony with the land surrounding it, including the visual aspects. The views you have from your land, particularly those you wish to preserve for their natural beauty and the pleasure they give you to look at, will impact upon your garden design.

Neighbors
Observe any aspects of your neighbors’ properties and lifestyle that may impact upon your permaculture garden. It may be that they do activities that are noisy so you might want to plant trees in a position to shield yourself from that noise. They may have a tall fence or building that casts shade onto your plot, which will affect what you plant in those shaded areas.

Government
Local government ordinances and procedures will also impact upon your site. Observe whether the council undertakes spraying on vegetation in public locations near your plot. Consult zoning regulations and recycling collection schemes. You will also need to observe how public utility services are represented on your plot, be it power lines above ground or sewage systems below.

Structures
The manmade structures on a site will also influence the growing conditions. Houses, sheds and fences can affect how sunlight is reflected, how heat is retained and diffused, the shaded areas of a garden, and which views are available.

Vegetation
Before you start planting your garden, observe the vegetation that is on the site already. Which species appear to be thriving and what is it about the areas where they are growing that seems to be the reason? Which species are native and which are introduced (you may want to preserve the native plants in your design)?

Animals
Look at the wildlife that visits the site, from the smallest insects to large mammals. Each is being attracted for a reason, typically the availability of food. If there are certain species you wish to deter, and other you want to attract, you can plant accordingly.

Local Resources
Consider if there are businesses locally that could provide sustainable organic materials you need for your permaculture garden. These could include a farm to source manure and sawmills to attain woodchips for mulching.

9 Things Chickens Bring To A Permaculture Garden

Chickens are often the gateway animals for permaculture gardeners. They are one of the best ways to gain an introduction to keeping livestock, and may well, space permitting, give you the bug for incorporating other types of creature into your site. There are many things that chickens bring to a permaculture plot. These are considered the chicken’s products and a very varied. As long as you provide for the birds’ needs, you will enjoy all the following benefits of keeping chickens.

Food
One of the primary reasons to keep chickens is that they provide food. Given the right sort of conditions, many species will produce eggs on most days. The Rhode Island Red, for example, averages 300 eggs per year per bird. Not only does this give you a consistent supply as tasty food, you can be sure of exactly what has gone into the production of the eggs, from the welfare of the birds to the food that has been processed by them. In modern egg production facilities, cramped unnatural conditions and the use of antibiotics are common.

Chickens can also provide meat. It can be quite a confronting thing to consider killing animals you have raised, but you can be secure in the knowledge that you have given them a happy life, one that met their needs and allowed them to live as natural a life as possible.

Recycling
And what is it that these birds are processing to become food in the shape of eggs and meat? Well, one of them is the scraps from your kitchen. Chickens are omnivorous and are a very good way of recycling so-called ‘waste’ material. They will eat most fruit and vegetable scraps (although onion and citrus peel should be avoided to prevent tainting the taste of the eggs), as well as red meat. It goes without saying that you should not feed chickens the remains of their own kind.

Manure
Once the chicken has eaten its food and its physiological processes have extracted the parts it requires to sustain it as well as produce eggs, what happens to the remainder? Well, it becomes manure. But even the chicken’s waste product is a valuable product that the permaculture gardener can utilize. Chicken droppings are rich in urea, meaning the have good levels of nitrogen. This chemical element is one of the essentials ones required by plants in order to grow and produce fruit. Providing sufficient nitrogen to plants is one of the key things to ensuring a good harvest. Chicken manure added to the soil is one of the best ways to achieve this. However, the manure should be composted first as used directly on garden beds it carries a risk of burning plant roots and stems.

There are other uses of chicken manure as well. Some permaculturists use it to sustain fish in an aquaculture system. The fish feed on the nutrients in the manure and then the fish droppings are used as food for plants in vegetable beds. Some gardeners have made this ecological cycle even more self-sustaining by siting their chicken coop over the aquaculture tanks, meaning the droppings are fed directly into the water, rather than being manually distributed. In such a system, all the gardener has to do is feed the chickens and harvest the crops.

Heat
Chickens, like all warm-blooded animals, give off heat, which is another prod cut of the chicken that can be utilized by the permaculture gardener. One common way of doing so is to site your chicken coop either inside a greenhouse (you will need to ensure droppings don not build up too much as the ammonia they release can be detrimental to the plants inside) or next to it so that while the birds do not access the greenhouse, the heat they give off radiates into it. Another option is to place you chicken coop next to the outside wall of your bathroom in order to help heat it, thus saving on your energy bills.

CO2
Another product that the chicken produces just by virtue of being alive is carbon dioxide. Like all air-breathing animals, chickens use oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. Plants use carbon dioxide to grow and give off oxygen. Siting your chicken coop inside or next to the greenhouse allows you to make use of chicken breath as well as body heat.

Soil Turning
One of the natural behaviors that permaculture gardeners should ensure that their chickens are allowed to exhibit is scratching at the ground. The birds do this to uncover worms, insects and seeds to eat, but is helps the gardener too, turning the topsoil so it aerates and improving the structure so nutrients and moisture can penetrate. The Sussex breed is well regarded for its soil-turning abilities. They can also be used to help turn compost.

Pest Control
As chickens scratch at the ground, they uncover insects and other animals to eat. Not only is this a natural source of food for the birds, the behavior can help the gardener by keeping pest populations under control. For instance, chickens eat slugs and snails that can damage vegetable crops, while in an orchard will eat fruit fly maggots in fallen fruit and help prevent this insect, which damages fruit crops, from breeding.

Enjoyment
It must also not be forgotten that having chickens in your permaculture garden will also bring you enjoyment and pleasure, simply by their presence. Different species are known to have different characteristics (such as the Orpington being known to actively seek human company), but individual chickens have their own personalities as well. Some may be shy and need time to develop a trusting relationship, while others can be upfront and demand attention.

Learning
Keeping chickens is also a very good way not only of providing children with the pleasure of observing and interacting with the animals, but also of teaching them about where food comes from. If you have young children, an easy-going breed is recommended. Consider the Wyandotte or the Delaware as species known to have placid natures.

12 Beneficial Insects For Your Permaculture Plot

Insects are the most numerous type of animal on the planet. With tens of thousands of different species and billions of individuals alive at any one time, they are among the most important creatures as well, providing a food for many other animals, and helping to pollinate plants. Insects are, therefore, important to a permaculture site as well.

Some insects are, however, more beneficial to your garden than others, primarily because they help keep populations of “pests” – insects that damage crops – down. Here are some of the little critters that will help keep your permaculture plot in balance.

Lacewings
While the lacewing gets its name from the delicate green tracery of veins on the wings of the adult, it is the larvae of the species that is of most benefit in terms of pest control. Sometimes called “aphid lions” for their voracious appetite for said pests, the larvae also prey upon small caterpillars, mealy bugs and insect eggs. As soon as the larvae hatch they search for food and can eat as many as 40 aphids per day, often, in rather macabre fashion, placing the desiccated husks of their victims on their backs as camouflage. . They have large jaws with which they grasp their prey, immobilizing them so they can suck out their juices. Attracting adult lacewings obviously increases the likelihood of larvae, and they feed on pollen, nectar and honeydew.

Ladybugs
Not only are ladybugs one of the most aesthetically pleasing of insects, they are also one of the most beneficial in controlling pests on the permaculture site. Both the adults and the larvae feed on plant-eating insects, particularly aphids but also mites and mealy bugs. Many ladybugs secrete a foul-tasting substance from their bodies to ward off predators, so once in your garden, they are likely to maintain a population if there is sufficient food.

Ground Beetles
There are approximately 2500 different species of ground beetle, and all of the most common varieties eat a wide range of smaller insects, including caterpillars, potato beetles, cutworms, snails, slugs and vine borers. Predominantly nocturnal, ground beetles prefer to lie low under rocks and plant material during the daylight hours, so make sure you have ground cover crops if you want to attract them. A few species of ground beetle are omnivorous and can consume weed seeds, offering another service to the permaculture gardener.

Braconid Wasps
Adult Braconid wasps only eat pollen and nectar, but they certainly ensure that their young have plenty of prey to feed on as soon as they hatch – by injecting their eggs into other insects. The female will lay an egg in a moth or beetle larvae, leaf miner, caterpillar, fly or an aphid, and when the wasp larvae hatches it eats its way out. Fortunately, the wasps’ fearsome reputation is reserved for other insects; it doesn’t sting so humans have no reason to fear them.

Trichogramma Mini Wasps
Similar to the Braconid wasp, these tiny creatures lay their eggs not inside other insects, but in their eggs. The young mini wasps develop inside, preventing the original insect’s young from developing. They tend to favour the eggs of moths and butterflies, but will also lay in those of some species of worm.

Assassin Bugs
Like their human namesakes, assassin bugs stalk their prey before delivering a killer blow – piercing their victim with an elongated mandible. Both adults and larvae feed on aphids, caterpillars, spider mites and all manner of insect eggs. Be careful if handling assassin bugs as they can bite you as well!

Minute Pirate Bugs
Small they may be (around two millimeters in length), but minute pirate bugs will attack insect prey many times their own size. But while they will take the occasional caterpillar, the majority of their diet is made up of mites, thrips and aphids. While their entire life cycle lasts little more than a month, eggs develop rapidly so, given the right conditions, populations can cycle through several generations during spring and summer. Minute pirate bugs are known to be good pest control additions to greenhouses.

Tachinid Flies
Tachinid flies resemble the common housefly, but are distinguished by having a hairy abdomen. The adults are pollen feeders, but the larvae feed upon grasshoppers, beetles, bugs, caterpillars and earwigs. All species of Tachinid flies are parasitical, meaning their eggs develop either inside or on a host that the larvae predates when it hatches. Different species employ various methods of getting their eggs a host, from injecting it inside, placing it on the back, or sticking eggs to foliage that the prey animal will eat.

Soldier Beetles
An all-round predator, these beetles, which average around half and inch in length when fully grown, can both scuttle along the ground and fly. They are usually easy to spot, with yellow and black or red and black markings on their wings. Adults and larvae feed on soft-bodied pest insects like caterpillars and aphids, while the adults will also feed on pollen and nectar.

Hover Flies
Aphids form the largest part of hover fly larvae’s diet, although they will prey on other soft-bodied insects when they get the chance. The adults tend to lay their eggs among aphid colonies so the emerging larvae have food immediately. The adults, which look a lot like yellow jackets, are solely pollen eaters.

Spined Soldier Bugs
Preying on caterpillars, fly larvae, cabbageworms, potato beetles and grubs, spined soldier bugs are a type of stink bug, but are distinguished by their spined “shoulders” which gives their carapace a shield-like appearance. They range in color from brown to bright red.

Preying Mantids
Preying mantids are arguably the oddest-looking insects you might find on your permaculture plot, at least if you can spot them, they are. Masters of camouflage, preying mantids use their body shape and coloring to blend into plants, from where they attack any other passing insect. This does mean that they will take other beneficial insects, but with healthy populations, their benefits outweigh the loss of a few ladybugs.

Homesteading Getting Started

Often, people ask  “What should I do first? How can I learn what I need to know?” To answer these questions, we’ve gathered advice from people with decades of experience with different kinds of homestead living.

Although many people dream of buying several acres in the country, you can start homesteading wherever you are. Heidi Hunt, an assistant editor at Mother Earth News, frequently talks to readers who are considering buying land in the country. Hunt homesteaded on a farm in northeastern Washington, where she built a cabin, gardened and spent many hours chopping wood. She says she always recommends learning as many homesteading skills as possible before moving. “Planting, harvesting and preserving food are skills that can be practiced almost anywhere,” Hunt says.
In fact, many aspects of homesteading work as well in the city or suburbs as in the country. Solar panels, straw bale building, wood heat and collecting rainwater are all possible in the city or suburbs, and even raising chickens is allowed in many cities. Just be careful to check all relevant zoning and local ordinances before you get started.

By John Stuart, Carol Mack and Megan Phelps
Suggested minimum space

Type for one animal Types of food Benefits

Bees One hive, or wooden beekeeping box Pollen, nectar Honey, wax, pollination for (Average 20,000 bees/colony) garden and orchard

Chickens Housing: 3 to 4 square feet/bird Pasture, greens, insects, cracked Eggs, meat, pest control
corn, a balanced poultry ration

Ducks Housing: 5 to 6 square feet/bird Pasture, greens, snails, insects, Eggs, meat, pest control
Pond access optional cracked corn, supplemental pellets

Goats Housing: 20 to 25 square feet Pasture in the summer; hay and Meat, milk, manure,
Pasture area: 0.2 to 6 acres supplemental grain in the winter; salt control of brush
and mineral mix

Sheep Housing: 15 to 20 square feet Pasture in the summer; hay and Meat, milk, manure,
Pasture area: 0.2 to 8 acres supplemental grain in the winter; wool, “mowing” grass,
trace-mineralized salt at all times weed control

Pigs Housing: 48 square feet Pasture, corn and soybean Meat, manure,
with exercise yard meal, small grains (wheat, oats, barley, etc.) “tilling” garden spaces

Cattle Housing: 50 to 75 square feet Pasture, supplemental feeds such as Meat, milk, manure
Pasture area: 1 to 40 acres shelled corn, soybean meal, molasses
and rice bran, crop residues, hay

The acreage and feed requirements above are general guides. The lower ends of the pasture suggestions are for rainy areas, the higher figures are for arid regions. The types of food that animals need can vary widely depending on the farming methods being used.

Livestock Basics

Whatever your homesteading plans, Hunt says it’s important to focus on your priorities. Decide which parts of the dream are most important to you. “Then, do your research,” she says.
“Learn the skills and find out what’s involved. Each new homesteading activity requires new tools and skills, as well as a certain amount of money and energy.”
Tatjana Alvegaard

www.MotherEarthNews.commodern homesteading

Recommended BOOOOKS

Country Skills
The Encyclopedia of Country Living,
by Carla Emery

The Have-More Plan, by Ed and Carolyn Robinson

Living on an Acre, by the U.S. Department of Agriculture

Home and Energy

The Natural House, by Dan Chiras

Renovation: A Complete Guide
by Michael Litchfield

The Solar-Electric House, by Steve Strong

Wind Energy Basics, by Paul Gipe

Personal Accounts

The Good Life, by Helen and Scott Nearing

Just the Greatest Life, by David Schafer

Rural Renaissance, By John Ivanko and Lisa Kivirist

Food and Farming

All Flesh is Grass, by Gene Logsdon

Homesteading Resources

Barnyard in your Backyard by Gail Damerow

The Big Book of Preserving the Harvest by Carol W. Costenbader

Four Season Harvest, by Eliot Coleman

Vegetable Gardener's Bible, by Ed Smith

You Can Farm, by Joel Salatin

WEB RESOURCES

Mother's Homesteading Articles. Search morethan 30 years of articles on homesteading at
www.MotherEarthNews.com.

ATTRA: The National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service
www.attra.org

Cooperative Extension Offices
www.csrees.usda.gov/Extension/
U.S. Department of Energy

www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/
renewable_energy

USDA Summary of Land Prices
usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/
nassr/other/plr-bb/land0805.pdf

PLAN THE PERFECT HOMESTEAD

Some of these activities require more money and time than others — another reason why it’s a good idea to start with smaller projects, such as learning to garden before buying farmland, or doing some basic home repairs before deciding to build your own home. If you pursue larger projects, there are many ways to learn more about your interests. For potential farmers, apprenticeships and volunteer opportunities on organic farms can be invaluable. Renewable energy workshops around the country help people learn about small-scale solar or wind power. To learn about building, options range from volunteering with Habitat for Humanity to attending straw-bale building parties and natural building workshops.

www.MotherEarthNews.com

What is Permaculture?

What is Permaculture?

1. Permaculture is an innovative framework for creating sustainable ways of living.
2. It is a practical method of developing ecologically harmonious, efficient and productive systems that can be used by anyone, anywhere.

By thinking carefully about the way we use our resources - food, energy, shelter and other material and non-material needs - it is possible to get much more out of life by using less. We can be more productive for less effort, reaping benefits for our environment and ourselves, for now and for generations to come.

This is the essence of permaculture - the design of an ecologically sound way of living - in our households, gardens, communities and businesses. It is created by cooperating with nature and caring for the earth and its people.

Permaculture is not exclusive - its principles and practice can be used by anyone, anywhere:

• City flats, yards and window boxes
• Suburban and country houses/garden
• Allotments and smallholdings
• Community spaces
• Farms and estates
• Countryside and conservation areas
• Commercial and industrial premises
• Educational establishments
• Waste ground

Permaculture encourages us to be resourceful and self-reliant. It is not a dogma or a religion but an ecological design system which helps us find solutions to the many problems facing us - both locally and globally.

Writer Emma Chapman defines it as:

"Permaculture, originally 'Permanent Agriculture', is often viewed as a set of gardening techniques, but it has in fact developed into a whole design philosophy, and for some people a philosophy for life. Its central theme is the creation of human systems which provide for human needs, but using many natural elements and drawing inspiration from natural ecosystems. Its goals and priorities coincide with what many people see as the core requirements for sustainability."

Permaculture tackles how to grow food, build houses and create communities, and minimise environmental impact at the same time. Its principles are being constantly developed and refined by people throughout the world in very different climates and cultural circumstances.

Subscribe to Permaculture and become a part of a growing community of like-minded people and a positive key to the change we all wish to see being brought to this planet.

See also

What is Permaculture - Part 1: Ethic 

What is Permaculture - Part 2: Principles

What is Permaculture - Part 3: Design

Useful resources

• The UK Permaculture Association
• Permaculture Principles - great resources to get you started

How to Grow Asparagus

Asparagus is a vegetable that belongs to the allium family, which also comprises leeks, onions, chives and shallots. It is native to the Mediterranean and Asia Minor areas, but has since been cultivated in most countries around the world. Contrary to many people’s conception, asparagus is a hardy plant and adaptable to most climate conditions, and indeed, as a perennial that overwinters in the ground, they thrive in places that have winter ground freezes. Asparagus is also a very healthy vegetable, providing good levels of a wide range of nutrients. These include potassium, B vitamins and calcium. And with no fat and virtually no calories, asparagus delivers all these positive benefits without any downside.

Position
Choose a position where your asparagus can stay permanently. They are a perennial plant and, given the right conditions and maintenance, can provide you with crops for years, even decades. Indeed, you won’t be harvesting them until at least the third year after planting, as the root system takes some time to grow strong enough to withstand harvest. Ideally you want to give the asparagus a position in full sunlight. They will tolerate partial shade, but full sunlight produces the most vigorous growth and the healthiest plant. The location also needs to drain well, as standing water will rot the roots.

Soil
Asparagus plants like a soil that is well drained and rich in organic matter. They develop very deep roots, so you want to try and make sure the soil is loosely structured for quite a way down the soil profile, enabling the roots to grow well and for moisture to percolate and aeration to occur. The best way to prepare the soil for asparagus plants is to dig a trench of around 75 centimeters and then add lots of organic material to it. This can include compost, manure, worm castings, leaf litter and so on. You can then layer soil over the top. The lower layer of organic matter will draw down the roots of the asparagus plants, making them stringer and more resilient. It will also help keep the pH of the soil balanced. Asparagus prefer a soil of between 6.5 and 7 in pH, so if your soil is acidic consider adding some organic lime along with the organic material.

Planting
Asparagus is typically planted either as seeds or seedlings. In either case, ensure you have organic specimens. Plant approximately 40 centimeters apart. This may seem like a lot but it is to prevent the extensive root systems from competing with each other for nutrients. Water the newly planted specimens well, ideally with harvested rainwater. You can also plant asparagus as ‘crowns’. These are nodules with roots already growing and are typically about a year old. Plant in trenches around six inches deep and well composted. Place each crown on a small mound and spread the roots out in different directions to ensure robust growth. Planting crowns will mean you should be able to harvest in the second year after planting rather than the third. However, make sure you source crowns from an organic supplier, and do not use any that are more than a year old, as the shock of transplantation is more severe with older crowns. In all cases, mulch around the plants to help preserve moisture and protect the plants during the winter.

Companions
A common companion plant for asparagus is tomato. The tomato repels the asparagus beetle that feeds on the roots, while the asparagus is thought to repel certain nematodes in the soil, which may damage the tomatoes. You should avoid planting asparagus in close proximity to other alliums as, given the similar genetic profile, they will be competing for the same nutrients and inhibit one another’s growth.

Water
Water regularly, as the soil should be well drained. The asparagus plants need more water in their first two years of growth to establish themselves. You may want to consider installing a drip irrigation system.

Maintenance
Compost around the plants each spring to help support growth. The extensive roots of the asparagus plants typically out-compete weeds for nutrients, so they shouldn’t be a problem after the first year or two. After the first frost in winter, or when the foliage of the plants turns yellow or brown, cut the asparagus back to ground level. This will help stimulate growth in the spring. When you cut back the foliage try to avoid letting the berries fall to the ground as they can germinate and your garden bed will have too many plants to be support.

Harvest
In the third year after planting, you can harvest the spears over a four-week period, while by the fourth the harvesting period can be extended to 8 weeks. Looks for spears with tightly formed tips and thin, strong stalks. As the weather warms up over the harvesting season, more and more spears will appear and you can harvest every other day or so, depending on the number of plants you have. Snap the spears off at ground level.

Kitchen
Like most vegetables, asparagus are best used as soon after harvest as possible. This is when they are at their fresher and so replete with the maximum amount of nutrients and flavor. However, uncooked asparagus spears will keep for up to three days in the refrigerator and still be tasty. However, the spears should really be kept damp, so either wrap in a damp tea towel or, alternatively, place the base of the stems in a jar with about an inch of water in the bottom then cover the tops loosely with a plastic bag. Asparagus can be used raw in salads, but that method means the stalks remain somewhat fibrous and only the tips are generally used. To use all of the spears they should be quickly boiled or steamed, for two or three minutes at most. This softens the stem to make it more appealing but also retains most of the nutrients. The key is to retain the bright green color of the stems – if they start to leach color they are leaching nutrients and flavor. A good tip is that once you have finished boiling or steaming, plunge the spears into ice water to preserve the color and flavor.

Seven Ideas For Urban Permaculture

When one thinks about food production, it is a natural inclination to imagine a rural scene. Fields, forests, orchards and farms are the most likely pictures that spring to mind. But the majority of people on the planet live in urban settings, so how can permaculture food production be applied to our towns and cities? There are, in fact many techniques that allow urban dwellers to grow food the permaculture way.

Window
Perhaps the archetypal material associated with modern urban architecture is glass. Apartment blocks, especially, tend to make a lot of use of it. However, it can be turned to the permaculturist’s advantage. Glass is very good at letting in sunlight and heat and you can utilize this by creating towers made from recycled plastic bottles that allow the light in and make use of the full length of your window. A more traditional option is to start window boxes. You can grow all kinds of herbs in window boxes, and even smaller fruits and vegetables like tomatoes and lettuce.

Edible Balconies
Tall apartment buildings are a feature of modern urban life, and they don’t often come with much outside space. One place where it can be available however, is on the balcony. Even in the small space of a balcony there is scope for growing food, and the same kind of analysis that you would undertake on any site should be performed before you ‘plant’. Observe wind patterns, strength and direction of sun hitting your balcony, which areas remain permanently in shade and which get a lot of sun, how much rainfall penetrates into the balcony. Of course, you won’t need to do a soil analysis, but you will need to ensure the soil you use in growing pots (the vessels you will use to grow plants on a balcony – which can be recycled containers of almost any kind) is rich in organic material and well drained.

There are many species that can be grown in pots on balconies, given the right conditions. Tomatoes and beans will climb towards sunlight (provide a trellis for them to hold on to), while root vegetables like potatoes and radishes are also feasible. Leafy greens such as kale and broccoli are very adaptable to pot growing, while salad greens and herbs are likely to give you the quickest rewards. You could also consider a small citrus tree if you have sufficient sun and it is protected from strong winds. Make the most of the height of the balcony as well by putting up baskets, in which you can grow low-lying fruits like strawberries. You will need to ensure that you keep the soil well stocked with organic matter, but you can practice composting on a small scale with the scraps for your kitchen, or even start a worm farm if space allows.

Living Roofs
The other place in apartment buildings that can provide growing space is the roof. Often the rooves of apartmentbuildings are jointly owned by all the residents and, while you would need the agreement of your fellow inhabitants, can be converted in whole or in part to a permaculture system. As long as drainage is ensured and the structure of the building is robust enough to take the extra weight you could build raised garden beds, as well as plant in pots. Species that thrive with a lot of direct sunlight – such as sweet corn, collard greens, eggplant, lettuce and tomatoes – are ideal. Just be aware of potentially high winds and seek to mitigate their destructive impact. Barrels to collect rainwater are also a good idea so you are not using mains water to irrigate.

You might also consider having one or more beehives on the roof. Bees are very adept at finding sources of food and can thrive in urban environments. Obviously, if you institute a hive as part of an overall permaculture roof garden, food is available for the bees in close proximity, and they will be instrumental in pollinating your crops.

Maximize Space
Land prices in urban areas are typically much higher than in rural areas, meaning you get less space for your money. This can mean that yards on urban plots are small. So you need to look at methods of maximizing the productive space in the garden in order to grow as much food as possible. Keyhole garden beds are one method of doing so, but you might also consider vertical planting, such as espaliered trees along fences, as well greenhouses to prolong the growing seasons.

Community Gardens|Whether you have a small backyard, a balcony, a window box, or, in particular, no space at all at your urban dwelling, getting involved with a community garden is a great way to practice permaculture and connect with other like-minded gardeners. Many towns and cities have initiatives that are turning underused or derelict land into viable plots for growing food. Your local council office will be able to tell you about initiatives in your area, and if there are none, lobby to have one started!

Land Share
Another option in urban areas that involves making connections with other people is land sharing. This initiative puts people who have land available but not the time or inclination to cultivate it in touch with those who are in the inverse situation – they have the drive to start a permaculture garden but lack the space to do so. It could be anything from a backyard to an underused allotment, and the landowner gives the gardener permission to transform the site in exchange for, typically, a small share of the harvest. Everyone wins!

Curbside Planting
Strictly speaking, you would need to get permission from the city council to plant on curbsides and on median strips, but there unlikely to be many objections to planting edible species in areas of dirt on public land. Herbs and even fruit trees have the potential to thrive in places such these, they will add to the greenery of the city and help with air quality, as well as providing local people with food. It would have to be a pretty hard-heading council to object to that!

Seven Tips for Growing Citrus Trees

Citrus fruits are some of the most versatile crops for use in the kitchen. They can be juiced for drinks or salad dressings, added to fruit salads, segmented over breakfast cereals, cooked with meat (duck a l’orange, anyone?) and used in any number of cakes, sorbets ice creams, cakes and other sweet desserts. They are also very nutritious fruits, being high in a range of vitamins. Sometimes, however, gardeners can be put off planting citrus fruits on their plot, feeling perhaps that they can only thrive in tropical climates or in greenhouses.

In fact, growing most varieties of citrus is relatively simple, as long as you are able to give them plenty of sunshine. Indeed, that primary consideration aside, permaculture gardeners should be able to cultivate a citrus tree, even if they have limited space. There are lots of varieties available, but some are more suited to small-scale cultivation than others. The Emperor mandarin is easy to cultivate and produces sweet fruit; Valencia is probably the best orange variety as it is hardier than many other species and produces a crop over a longer period; Meyer lemons can be grown in small spaces, and do well in pots; while Tahiti limes are ideal as they produce a lot of juice.

Whichever type of citrus you choose to cultivate, here are some guidelines to help get you started.

Position
Exposure to sunshine is the key to successful cultivation of all citrus varieties. A minimum of five hours full sun is necessary, but the more you can give them the better, so a north-facing position is best. In more temperate climates, it is a good idea to locate the trees next to a wall so that they can benefit from the radiated heat. This will also help to protect the trees from strong winds. A sheltered spot prevents damage to the tree from winds, but be advised that you want to ensure some airflow around the trees, which helps them transpire.

Soil
Citrus trees prefer a soil that has a neutral pH or is slightly acidic. If your soil is alkaline, that best method of lowering the pH is composting well with organic compost. It is even better if your compost contains animals manure, so if you keep chickens as livestock on your permaculture plot, citrus trees should thrive with regular doses of their composted droppings. This will also provide the trees with plenty of nitrogen, essential for their growth and development of a healthy crop, and keep grass away from the tree (which would compete for nutrients and water). It will also assist in keeping the soil well drained, which is essential for successful cultivation of citrus trees.

Planting
When you plant a citrus tree, dig a hole that is twice as wide as the pot the tree is in, and around one and half times as deep. Mix some of the soil removed from the hole with compost (preferably one with animal manure in it) and add to the base of the hole (if you are in an area with heavy clay soil, it is also a good idea to mix in some sand at this stage to help improve moisture drainage). Place the tree in and fill the hole with soil. Water well. Plant your trees in spring after any risk of frost has passed. They need a full growing season to help them establish themselves in the permaculture plot before the winter comes.

Mulch
The roots of citrus trees are comparatively shallow, so they benefit from an organic mulch to provide a slow release of nutrients into the soil (as they do not have the root depth to bring nutrients up from lower down in the soil profile). As with other trees, avoid mulching directly against the trunk of the citrus tree. Adding compost regularly around the drip line of the tree will also help provide it with the nutrients it needs.

Water
Young trees need a lot of watering, and should be irrigated once or twice a week for the first six weeks after planting to help them get established. The ground should be well drained to prevent root rot. Water early in the morning or late in the evening to give the plants the most chance to access and utilize the moisture.

Pots
Even if you have limited space, perhaps just a courtyard or sheltered balcony, you can still grow a citrus tree; it will just have to be in a pot and typically be a dwarf species. The benefit of potted citrus trees is that you can move them around to take advantage of all available sunshine as the sun moves across the sky. You can also bring the trees indoors when cold weather approaches. As you can imagine, potted trees require more constant attention than those in the garden, but the same considerations apply – they need at least five hours of sunshine a day, protection from winds (it is not recommended to have a citrus tree on a balcony high in an apartment block), a decent potting mix that drains well and regular watering. In the warmer months you should be watering once or twice a week as required. Citrus trees grown in pots will need to have their roots trimmed every three years or so. This requires you to take the tree out of the pot and trim approximately five centimeters from around the root ball. Replant with new, well-composted potting mix.

Care
Once established, most citrus trees can survive a winter, unless it involves extremely low temperatures. When the trees are young and an unexpected frost is due, wrap the tree in fleece to protect it (if growing in pots, bring the pots indoors for the night). Citrus trees do not need pruning to help them fruit, but you should take out some leaves and branches if the center becomes too dense, as airflow helps keep the tree healthy. You can prune to keep the tree at a desired size for your available space.

How to Plan an Orchard

There are few things finer in life than going out of your house on a summer’s morning – perhaps holding your child by their hand – to pick the fruit you will eat with your breakfast. Plucking a ripe pear or a crisp apple from the branch, savoring its aroma and looking forward to the fresh, deep taste that comes from cultivating crops in harmony with nature is a wondrous thing.

Most permaculture gardeners with sufficient space will include at least one fruit tree in their garden design. It can provide a focal point in a small suburban plot, or even, if a dwarf variety, add variety to a courtyard garden. Fruit trees are typically the centerpieces of the common permaculture planting technique of guilds, and they bring a lot of benefits to any site, from shade to protect plants and deep roots to improve the soil structure, to attracting birds to the garden and, of course, providing a crop for eating.

For those with more space, an orchard can be a very attractive option. Indeed, orchards are arguably the most likely legacy of your permaculture garden, as with a little care and attention, they will provide fruit for years to come. While the specific attributes of your site and local climate will ultimately influence your choice of fruit trees and the location of your orchard, there are some general guidelines to consider when planning an orchard on your permaculture plot.

Site
Orchards are typically a design feature for Zone 2 of your permaculture plot. Requiring less attention than the vegetables, herbs and fruits in Zone 1, they will still benefit from attention every few days – to check for any potential pest problems or to see if wildlife has been able to access the orchard, for example. You will visit more often when the crop is ready for harvest, and if you allow livestock such as pigs to forage in the orchard, you will want to check on them every day to ensure their needs are being met. However, once established, orchards need very little actual maintenance; with the correct planting when instituting your orchard, it should pretty much take care of itself.

Orchards need a lot of direct sunlight for the trees to grow robustly and to provide abundant, healthy crops – ideally six to eight hours a day. Be aware of any larger trees – or trees that will potentially grow large in the future – that are adjacent to your orchard, either on your plot or your neighbor’s land. These trees may shade out your fruit trees, and compete with them for soil nutrients. However, fruit trees are also susceptible to damage from string winds, so you might want to consider planting trees to act as a windbreak, as long as they won’t shade out the fruit trees.

They also need well-drained soil. A slight slope can be particularly apt as it allows water to drain slowly and avoids the risk of soil erosion. If planting on flat land, make sure the soil is humus-rich by adding lots of organic material, and not too high in clay.

Choose Trees
The two primary things to consider when choosing fruit trees for your orchard are which are suited to your location, and what fruit you like to eat. However, most fruit trees will flourish in most situations given enough sunlight and a well-drained soil. It is worth bearing in mind that some fruit trees – such as Golden Delicious apples, Bartlett pears and most varieties of peach – self-pollinate, meaning you can have just a single specimen in the orchard and it will still set fruit. Others require at least two individual trees in order to cross-pollinate and set fruit. If neighbors have trees of the fruit you want to grow on their property, you may well get pollination that way, but having at least two on your plot is the best guarantee. For these species, plant the specimens next to each other to assist with pollination (and to make harvesting easier).

Soil
Preparing the soil before you plant your orchard is a very good investment to make. It is much harder to adjust the soil once the trees are in the ground. Add lost of organic material to the soil and water it in well. Not only will this help with drainage and nutrient supply, it should get the soil pH to around the desired level. Most fruit species prefer a soil pH of between 6.5 and 7. If your soil is still too alkaline, add some composted animal manure or compost with coffee ground in it, while if the soil is too acidic, consider adding some organic agricultural lime.

Spacing
Consider the space that your fruit trees will need when fully grown. You want them to be close to each other but not so close that their canopies intermingle, as this can affect growth and crop productivity. Individual species will requires distinct spacing, but as a general rule you want to allow a 10-foot circle around a dwarf fruit tree, and a 25-foot circle around a standard-sized tree. If possible orientate your trees north to south so they get maximum exposure to the sun.

Companions
Allowing sufficient space for your fruit trees also gives you room to plant companion plants around each tree in a guild that will benefit both the fruit tree and the companion plants. For instance, the tree can give shade to lower-lying legumes that fix nitrogen in the soil that the tree accesses. Different fruit species favor different companions, but an apple tree guild, for example, could contain dill and fennel that attract pollinating insects, as well artichokes, whose roots help keep the soil in good condition, and nasturtiums to repel pest insects. It is worth considering that most fruit tree species do not do well if surrounded by grass, as the grass competes with the tree roots for soil nutrients and moisture. Plant companions that suppress grass growth, such as leeks, garlic or daffodils. You can also mulch around the tree – although always leave a space around the trunk.